Internet Security Article

Internet Security is something that has grown to be a main concern among society. Companies have come out with Identity Theft prevention services, but often, by the time you get those, it is already too late or doesn’t help. The purpose of this guide is to help you try and develop safe internet habits and to keep you as safe as possible from unwanted problems relating to your personal security.

Many of you probably hear on the news, every so often, “A popular website has been compromised and many people have had their personal data stolen!” When a website is compromised, it puts thousands at risk for one of many possible types of identity theft. It is rare that a site is hacked to this extent: usually, the data is collected through look alike sites, through spyware, or through other means of collection; most of which happen on a single-user basis. It makes many people nervous when giving out personal information to anyone online because they are not sure what can really happen, and they do not have all the facts.

The goal of this article is to help you understand internet security, so you can protect yourself from thieves. We will take a look at how you can protect yourself, what websites are doing to protect you, and what laws are in place to help protect you. The best way to be safe is to understand what common tricks are, and how to avoid getting exploited.

There are two important terms, which are very commonly misused (even among the “experts” at Microsoft), that need to be defined, so you do not get confused later in the article. These words are: Hacker and Cracker

Hackers are commonly thought of as the bad guys, the people who make your computer go as slow as heck, and the people who steal your identity. In reality, they are actually the opposite. Hackers are the good guys who test security vulnerabilities and fix them. Government agencies, software companies (including Microsoft), and internet security companies employ hundreds of hackers (a few too little, maybe!) to test their software before its release. They try to hack the software to make sure that when it ships, people are not going to be able to use it for malicious purposes.

As a webmaster, even I am a hacker. I have to know how to test my website’s security so the bad guys don’t get through. I also have to ensure that when I make a website for a customer, that any data on the site is safe, secure, and that everything related to security is quite bulletproof. When I use the term “hacking” in this article, it refers to the testing of security, whether for good or bad, for sake of common terminology.

Cracker is a term that isn’t used much outside of the security world. A cracker is someone who exploits holes in a program for malicious use. For example, the people who create game keygens are crackers, meaning what they do is illegal. For continuity, I will refer to both hackers and crackers as hackers, unless a distinction needs to be made; most people think of the two as the same.

Let’s also get a common stereotype out of the way. Hackers are not always some teenager working out of their garage. Most hackers are professional people who know what they are doing. The only reason the “My 15 year old neighbour is a hacker” myth is around is that teenagers tend to be more vocal about what they accomplish. Let’s face it, there are thousands of viruses out there (to be exact, Symantec currently protects users from 69,481 viruses), and a very limited number of the authors ever get caught. Of the very few who do get caught, most of them are probably teenagers. The reason for this is quite simple: they have big mouths. They go to school and yell “Guess what! I cracked Microsoft’s web server this weekend!” and someone gets a sizable reward when they turn the youngster in. Professional hackers tend to be more covert about their actions, and therefore, rarely get caught (until they get too greedy).

A Brief History of Cracking / Hacking: Until the early 1980s, hacking had not been a household term. Prior to this time, the Personal Computer was not a widely available or feasible option for most home users. Most of the computer market consisted of million dollar mainframes the size of a warehouse, which only government and major corporations could afford. Finally in the Mid-1980s, personal computers finally became affordable to most users, and began to find their way into the home.

In 1983, a movie called “War Games” portrayed a teenager who could hack just about anything in the world. He was able to hack through his schools computer network, as well as many other malicious tasks. This movie caught the imagination of the teenagers who saw it, and sparked an evolution of hackers.

This shift caught the computing industry by surprise, so they were unprepared to take on the new breed of hacker. With time, the teenagers gained experience and many gang-like groups of hackers formed. They started to share their exploits with friends in the group, and word got around quick. Almost overnight, hacking came to the forefront of personal computer uses.

At first, hackers mainly wished to gain access to systems, not to damage them. The first hacker to be prosecuted in the United States was Pat Riddle. Pat had been known to regularly gain unauthorized access to U.S. Department of Defence computers; a major problem to the security of the United States. He was arrested, but could not be charged with anything relating to hacking, because at the time, there were no anti-hacking laws. He was charged with theft of phone service instead, putting him in jail for a very limited period of time.

To prevent similar problems in the future, the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act was passed in 1984. It provided a legal means to prosecute hackers for certain things. A more in depth detail of laws and regulations will be covered later in the article.

Internet Security Article

Internet Security is something that has grown to be a main concern among society. Companies have come out with Identity Theft prevention services, but often, by the time you get those, it is already too late or doesn’t help. The purpose of this guide is to help you try and develop safe internet habits and to keep you as safe as possible from unwanted problems relating to your personal security.

Many of you probably hear on the news, every so often, “A popular website has been compromised and many people have had their personal data stolen!” When a website is compromised, it puts thousands at risk for one of many possible types of identity theft. It is rare that a site is hacked to this extent: usually, the data is collected through look alike sites, through spyware, or through other means of collection; most of which happen on a single-user basis. It makes many people nervous when giving out personal information to anyone online because they are not sure what can really happen, and they do not have all the facts.

The goal of this article is to help you understand internet security, so you can protect yourself from thieves. We will take a look at how you can protect yourself, what websites are doing to protect you, and what laws are in place to help protect you. The best way to be safe is to understand what common tricks are, and how to avoid getting exploited.

There are two important terms, which are very commonly misused (even among the “experts” at Microsoft), that need to be defined, so you do not get confused later in the article. These words are: Hacker and Cracker

Hackers are commonly thought of as the bad guys, the people who make your computer go as slow as heck, and the people who steal your identity. In reality, they are actually the opposite. Hackers are the good guys who test security vulnerabilities and fix them. Government agencies, software companies (including Microsoft), and internet security companies employ hundreds of hackers (a few too little, maybe!) to test their software before its release. They try to hack the software to make sure that when it ships, people are not going to be able to use it for malicious purposes.

As a webmaster, even I am a hacker. I have to know how to test my website’s security so the bad guys don’t get through. I also have to ensure that when I make a website for a customer, that any data on the site is safe, secure, and that everything related to security is quite bulletproof. When I use the term “hacking” in this article, it refers to the testing of security, whether for good or bad, for sake of common terminology.

Cracker is a term that isn’t used much outside of the security world. A cracker is someone who exploits holes in a program for malicious use. For example, the people who create game keygens are crackers, meaning what they do is illegal. For continuity, I will refer to both hackers and crackers as hackers, unless a distinction needs to be made; most people think of the two as the same.

Let’s also get a common stereotype out of the way. Hackers are not always some teenager working out of their garage. Most hackers are professional people who know what they are doing. The only reason the “My 15 year old neighbour is a hacker” myth is around is that teenagers tend to be more vocal about what they accomplish. Let’s face it, there are thousands of viruses out there (to be exact, Symantec currently protects users from 69,481 viruses), and a very limited number of the authors ever get caught. Of the very few who do get caught, most of them are probably teenagers. The reason for this is quite simple: they have big mouths. They go to school and yell “Guess what! I cracked Microsoft’s web server this weekend!” and someone gets a sizable reward when they turn the youngster in. Professional hackers tend to be more covert about their actions, and therefore, rarely get caught (until they get too greedy).

A Brief History of Cracking / Hacking: Until the early 1980s, hacking had not been a household term. Prior to this time, the Personal Computer was not a widely available or feasible option for most home users. Most of the computer market consisted of million dollar mainframes the size of a warehouse, which only government and major corporations could afford. Finally in the Mid-1980s, personal computers finally became affordable to most users, and began to find their way into the home.

In 1983, a movie called “War Games” portrayed a teenager who could hack just about anything in the world. He was able to hack through his schools computer network, as well as many other malicious tasks. This movie caught the imagination of the teenagers who saw it, and sparked an evolution of hackers.

This shift caught the computing industry by surprise, so they were unprepared to take on the new breed of hacker. With time, the teenagers gained experience and many gang-like groups of hackers formed. They started to share their exploits with friends in the group, and word got around quick. Almost overnight, hacking came to the forefront of personal computer uses.

At first, hackers mainly wished to gain access to systems, not to damage them. The first hacker to be prosecuted in the United States was Pat Riddle. Pat had been known to regularly gain unauthorized access to U.S. Department of Defence computers; a major problem to the security of the United States. He was arrested, but could not be charged with anything relating to hacking, because at the time, there were no anti-hacking laws. He was charged with theft of phone service instead, putting him in jail for a very limited period of time.

To prevent similar problems in the future, the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act was passed in 1984. It provided a legal means to prosecute hackers for certain things. A more in depth detail of laws and regulations will be covered later in the article.

Computer Security

What is Computer Security?

Computer Security is a branch of technology known as information security as applied to computers. Information security means protecting information and information systems from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, or destruction. The objective of computer security varies and can include protection of information from theft or corruption, or the preservation of availability, as defined in the security policy.

Technological and managerial procedures applied to computer systems to ensure the availability, integrity and confidentiality of information managed by the computer system

Computer security imposes requirements on computers that are different from most system requirements because they often take the form of constraints on what computers are not supposed to do.

Typical approaches to improving computer security can include the following:

• Physically limit access to computers to only those who will not compromise security.
• Hardware mechanisms that impose rules on computer programs, thus avoiding depending on computer programs for computer security.
• Operating system mechanisms that impose rules on programs to avoid trusting computer programs.
• Programming strategies to make computer programs dependable and resist subversion.

Computer Security has three Layers:

• Hacking
• Cracking
• Phreaking

Hacking

Unauthorized use or attempts to circumvent or bypass the security mechanisms of an information or network system.

Computer hacking always involves some degree of infringement on the privacy of others or damage to computer-based property such as files, web pages or software. The impact of computer hacking varies from simply being simply invasive and annoying to illegal.

Cracking

Act of breaking into a computer system.

Software Cracking is the modification of software to remove protection methods: copy prevention, trial/demo version, serial number, hardware key, CD check or software annoyances like nag screens and adware.

The most common software crack is the modification of an application's binary to cause or prevent a specific key branch in the program's execution.

Phreaking

A term coined to describe the activity of a subculture of people who study, experiment with, or explore telecommunication systems.

Security by design

The technologies of computer security are based on logic. There is no universal standard notion of what secure behaviour is. "Security" is a concept that is unique to each situation. Security is extraneous to the function of a computer application, rather than ancillary to it, thus security necessarily imposes restrictions on the application's behaviour.

There are several approaches to security in computing; sometimes a combination of approaches is valid:

1. Trust all the software to abide by a security policy but the software is not trustworthy (this is computer insecurity).
2. Trust all the software to abide by a security policy and the software is validated as trustworthy (by tedious branch and path analysis for example).
3. Trust no software but enforce a security policy with mechanisms that are not trustworthy (again this is computer insecurity).
4. Trust no software but enforce a security policy with trustworthy mechanisms.

12 tips for computer security:

1. Update / patch ALL your software every now and then!
2. Check / adjust ALL your settings so they are safe, since they ARENT by default!
3. Use firewall, like Zone Alarm to control what goes in and out from your computer!
4. Use good passwords: at least 13marks long, containing both letters and numbers. Remember to change your password every few months at least and don’t ever use the same password in two places!
5. Get a good antivirus program: NOD32, F-Secure or Norton Antivirus and keep it updated!
6. Don’t open or execute files that you are not 100% sure are absolutely safe no matter where or how you get them.
7. Wipe your history files (like cookies, internet history and temporary files, etc.), logs and personal files, with specific wiping program (like Eraser) instead of just deleting them.
8. Use encryption to enhance your privacy! Use encrypted email (like Hushmail or Ziplip), www-surfing and encrypt sensitive files on your computer (PGP).
9. When you are finished using some internet-based service like email, sign out of it rather than just closing your browser! Also, when you leave your computer, make sure that none of such programs or connections are left open that someone could abuse. In WindowsNT/2k/XP, press Windowskey+L to lock the workstation.
10. Donï't use public computers for anything you need to type in your logins, they usually have Trojan horses that capture your passwords.
11. Make backups and store them in safe place! Easiest way to do a total-backup is to make an "Image" of your hard drive or partition and store it on safe location, but floppies will usually be just fine for storing documents, etc.
12. Install and Use a Hardware Firewall

Securing your network, from home users to small business up to enterprise.

With computers being a critical component in running a business, it is more valuable than ever to ensure the security of your networks particularly where there is sensitive data. News headlines announcing that networks have experienced security breaches are all too prevalent. This is where you need a service that checks for those vulnerabilities and prevents from future attacks. Better yet, you need a service that prevents it before it ever happens to your company. Imagine the embarrassment at having to explain to your customers that someone has stolen their credit card information.

We continue to read headline after headline with news stories that credit card information or social security numbers were exploited. Some companies perform security audits on a regular basis. Certainly institutions like hospitals are required to perform these. But it's mostly small to mid-sized companies that are the most vulnerable.

Hackers employ various methods for gaining access to systems. An audit often looks at replicating those methods, looking for vulnerabilities and weaknesses in the infrastructure. Affectionately known as Penetration Testing, it involves isolating mild, moderate and critical security threats and then determining the best course of action. When performing a Penetration test, a couple of key areas need to be targeted to ensure that a secure network system helps companies to avoid: - Preventing financial loss through fraud (hackers, extortionists and disgruntled employees) or through lost revenue due to unreliable business systems and processes. - Legal problems. Non-compliance can result in your organization losing business, receiving heavy fines, gathering bad PR or ultimately failing. At a personal level it can also mean the loss of your job, prosecution and sometimes even imprisonment. Poorly protecting your brand by avoiding loss of consumer confidence and business reputation.

From an operational perspective, penetration testing helps shape information security strategy through identifying vulnerabilities and quantifying their impact and likelihood so that they can be managed proactively; budgets can be allocated and corrective measures implemented.

For the average home user, there are some basic things, especially when setting up a wireless network at home that you can easily do to prevent users piggybacking on your network or even hacking in to it.

Add a little security
Change the SSID (name) of your network and disable the SSID broadcast. Disable DHCP Control MAC Address Filtering
Add more security
WEP Encrypt - adds an extra blocking mechanism for hackers
Even more Security

WPA - setting up a random pre-shared key of 10 characters ensures your network is practically rock-solid. This is a random string of numbers and letters, just make sure you can remember it yourself.

These are some very basic steps to securing your data and ensuring your privacy. Keep in mind that small to medium business should do a little more to keep their information secure as there is even more valuable data ie. other people's.

Solar Energy Source

Did you know that in 15 minutes the sun radiates as much energy as mankind consumes in all forms, during an entire year? Did you know that in one day the sun radiates enough energy on the United States to power the entire nation for a year and a half? Not only that, but it does it every day - for free. Solar power is a safe, clean and renewable energy resource that will no doubt play a vital role in powering our future.

How can the energy from the sun be harnessed? And how can we put that energy to practical use? Harnessing the sun’s power is accomplished through the use of a photovoltaic system. Basically, the word “photovoltaic” is used to describe a device, which when exposed to the sun’s radiation, creates electrical power. It’s abbreviated as “PV”. PV systems incorporate the use of PV modules, (which are also commonly referred to as “solar panels”), to generate energy from sunlight and inverters which convert that power and safely deliver it to the utility grid for our use.

When properly designed, a PV system not only helps our environment, but it makes economical sense as well. Owners of PV systems make an important contribution to protecting our environment while enjoying the economic advantages of their “clean” electricity at the same time.

In the following sections you will learn more about how to plan your own PV system and why the inverter is such an important component.

The sun - a Reliable Source of Energy

The United States is well suited for the use of solar power. Most of the nation is exposed to high levels of irradiation every day. Even in parts of the nation confronted with rainy summers and dark winter months, solar power can still be put to use economically.

Depending on the location, the average annual amount of energy PV modules will be exposed to totals between 950 to 2,150 kilowatt hours per square meter (kWh/m²). This is a lot considering that 1,000 kWh/m² is equal to the energy of about 25 gallons of heating oil. So you can see that the energy potential is already there and PV systems are an excellent way to put it to work for you.

Ample Sun throughout the Nation

The sunlight that your solar system is exposed to is sometimes “direct” or unobstructed by clouds. At other times the sunlight is “diffused”, that is, filtered to some degree either by clouds or the atmosphere in the more northern parts of the country. Solar technology can utilize either form of sunlight. The seasons, elevation and angle of the sun also affect the usable amount of energy. In the northwest for example, the amount of diffused sunlight caused by clouds is relatively high. However, even diffused sunlight can be effectively harnessed to produce electricity by using a well-designed photovoltaic system.

PV Modules – the Cooler the Better

It seems counterintuitive because PV modules are made to be mounted in the sun, but the fact is that they perform better when cooler – in fact, the ideal temperature is right around 25°C.

This means that PV systems up in the clear air and cool temperatures of the mountains will perform better than a system of the same size located in the desert. The amount of direct sunlight at the equator for example, is much higher than in the latitudes in North America; however, the high ambient temperatures heat the modules up and therefore reduce the overall system performance considerably. The power loss is approximately 0.4 % per °C for common PV modules.

So although the sunlight is weaker in North America as compared to South America, the temperatures are cooler making the PV modules more efficient. This compensates for the lower intensity of the sun.

Types of Solar Systems

The sun delivers its energy in two forms: heat and light.

Solar systems can efficiently convert either form into power for practical use.

When many people hear the term “solar system” they think of solar hot water, where the sun is used to heat water for swimming pools or domestic use. This is accomplished by exposing the water to the sun’s heat prior to using it. We also make use of the sun’s heat by orienting windows towards the south (in the northern hemisphere) to take advantage of the sun’s warmth in the winter. This is called “passive” solar. This term is used to describe methods of using the sun’s energy indirectly, such as through bio-mass or heat pumps.

The term solar power system on the other hand, typically describes only those systems that convert sunlight into heat (solar thermal energy) or electricity (photovoltaics). Photovoltaics and solar thermal energy are not in direct competition - quite the contrary: they ideally complement each other and can be combined well. Many specialized companies provide innovative solutions for this purpose.

How Photovoltaics Work

As solar power becomes increasingly popular, more and more solar panels can be seen on the roofs of homes and businesses alike. These solar panels employ one of the most environmentally friendly methods for producing electricity: “photovoltaic”. The term photovoltaic, or PV, is used to describe something that creates electricity when exposed to sunlight. Solar panels, or PV modules, are made up of several solar cells. Each cell is comprised of materials which have photovoltaic properties.

Photovoltaic technology is actually quite simple:

Electricity can be produced by solar cells whose principal component consists of a semiconductor that is typically made of silicon. A semiconductor consists of a material that cannot be classified as an isolator or a conductor and whose electrical properties can be influenced by adding foreign substances (doping). The solar cells comprise two adjoining semiconductor layers that are equipped with separate metal contacts and have each been doped, thus creating an “n” layer (n = negative) with a surplus of electrons and below that, a “p” layer (p = positive) with an electron deficiency. Due to the difference in concentration, the electrons flow from n into the p area, thus creating an electrical field, or “space charge zone”, inside the semiconductor structure.

The Photovoltaic Effect

The upper “n” layer in a solar cell is so thin that the photons from sunlight can penetrate it and can only discharge their energy to an electron once they are in the space charge zone. The electron that is activated in this manner follows the internal electrical field and thus travels outside of the space charge zone and reaches the metal contacts of the “p” layer. When an electrical load is connected, the power circuit is closed: the electrons flow across the electrical load to the solar cell’s rear contact and then back to the space charge zone. This effect is called the “photovoltaic effect” (derived from ‘‘Phos’’, the Greek word for light and the name of the physicist Alessandro Volta). An inverter, the “heart” of the system, converts the direct current (DC) produced by the solar cells into alternating current (AC).

From the Cells to the Module

The sun radiates approximately 1000W per square meter, so a 10 x 10 cm solar cell is exposed to nearly 10 watts of radiated power. Depending on the quality of the cell, it can produce an electrical output of 1 - 1.5 watts. To increase the output, several cells are combined and connected to a PV module. The connection of several PV modules is also referred to as a PV array. You can learn more about photovoltaics using the menu bar on the upper right-hand side.

How Solar Thermal Energy Works

Solar thermal energy is the use of solar energy to produce heat.

This is an effect you’re familiar with if you’ve ever gotten into your car after it has been parked in the sun on a hot summer day. Solar thermal energy works in the same way except that the heat generated is put to practical use to heat water or space heating.

In addition, by using a solar thermal system, you make an effective contribution in preserving our energy reserves and environmental protection by reducing CO2 emissions.

A Simple Principle that Integrates Easily

The solar collectors absorb the sun’s rays, convert them to heat and transfer the heat to a heat-transfer fluid. (The heat-transfer fluid is typically a glycol and water mixture in regions where seasonal freezing in a concern.) The heat-transfer fluid is then pumped into a heat exchanger located inside the water storage tank where it heats the water.

After releasing its heat via the heat exchanger, the heat-transfer fluid flows back to the collectors to be reheated. The controller keeps the heat-transfer fluid circulating whenever there is heat available in the solar collectors. In the winter, a boiler serves as an alternate heat source. Solar thermal systems can be integrated into existing hot water systems with relative ease.

Solar Energy Source

Other Renewable Energy Sources

Many nations count on coal, oil and natural gas to supply most of their energy needs, but reliance on fossil fuels presents a big problem. Fossil fuels are a finite resource. Eventually, the world will run out of fossil fuels, or it will become too expensive to retrieve those that remain. Fossil fuels also cause air, water and soil pollution, and produce greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming.

Renewable energy resources, such as wind, solar and hydropower, offer clean alternatives to fossil fuels. They produce little or no pollution or greenhouse gases, and they will never run out.

Wind Power

Wind power is actually a form of solar power, because wind is caused by heat from the sun. Solar radiation heats every part of the Earth’s surface, but not evenly or at the same speed. Different surfaces—sand, water, stone and various types of soil-absorb, retain, reflect and release heat at different rates, and the Earth generally gets warmer during daylight hours and cooler at night.

As a result, the air above the Earth’s surface also warms and cools at different rates. Hot air rises, reducing the atmospheric pressure near the Earth’s surface, which draws in cooler air to replace it. That movement of air is what we call wind.

When air moves, causing wind, it has kinetic energy-the energy created whenever mass is in motion. With the right technology, the wind’s kinetic energy can be captured and converted to other forms of energy such as electricity or mechanical power. That’s wind power.

Just as the earliest windmills in Persia, China and Europe used wind power to pump water or grind grain, today’s utility-connected wind turbines and multi-turbine wind farms use wind power to generate clean, renewable energy to power homes and businesses.

Wind power should be considered an important component of any long-term energy strategy, because wind power generation uses a natural and virtually inexhaustible source of power—the wind—to produce electricity. That is a stark contrast to traditional power plants that rely on fossil fuels.

And wind power generation is clean; it doesn’t cause air, soil or water pollution. That’s an important difference between wind power and some other renewable energy sources, such as nuclear power, which produces a vast amount of hard-to-manage waste.

One obstacle to increasing worldwide use of wind power is that wind farms must be located on large tracts of land or along coastlines to capture the greatest wind movement.

Devoting those areas to wind power generation sometimes conflicts with other priorities, such as agriculture, urban development, or waterfront views from expensive homes in prime locations.

As the need for clean, renewable energy increases, and the world more urgently seeks alternatives to finite supplies of oil, coal and natural gas, priorities will change.

And as the cost of wind power continues to decline, due to technology improvements and better generation techniques, wind power will become increasingly feasible as a major source of electricity and mechanical power.

Hydropower

Water flowing downstream is a powerful force. Water is a renewable resource, constantly recharged by the global cycle of evaporation and precipitation. The heat of the sun causes water in lakes and oceans to evaporate and form clouds. The water then falls back to Earth as rain or snow, and drains into rivers and streams that flow back to the ocean. Flowing water can be used to power water wheels that drive mechanical processes. And captured by turbines and generators, like those housed at many dams around the world, the energy of flowing water can be used to generate electricity.

Biomass Energy

Biomass has been an important source of energy ever since people first began burning wood to cook food and warm themselves against the winter chill. Wood is still the most common source of biomass energy, but other sources of biomass energy include food crops, grasses and other plants, agricultural and forestry waste and residue, organic components from municipal and industrial wastes, even methane gas harvested from community landfills. Biomass can be used to produce electricity and as fuel for transportation, or to manufacture products that would otherwise require the use of non-renewable fossil fuels.

Hydrogen

The jury is still out on whether hydrogen will ultimately be our environmental saviour, replacing the fossil fuels responsible for global warming and various nagging forms of pollution. Two main hurdles stand in the way of mass production and widespread consumer adoption of hydrogen “fuel-cell” vehicles: the still high cost of producing fuel cells; and the lack of a hydrogen refuelling network.

Reining in manufacturing costs of fuel-cell vehicles is the first major issue the automakers are addressing. While several have fuel-cell prototype vehicles on the road—Toyota and Honda are even leasing them to the public in Japan and California—they are spending upwards of $1 million to produce each one due to the advanced technology involved and low production runs. Toyota hopes to reduce its costs per fuel-cell vehicle to around $50,000 by 2015, which would make such cars economically viable in the marketplace. On this side of the Pacific, General Motors plans to sell hydrogen-powered vehicles in the United States by 2010.

Another problem is the lack of hydrogen refuelling stations. Major oil companies have been loath to set up hydrogen tanks at existing gas stations for many reasons, ranging from safety to cost to lack of demand. But obviously the oil companies are also trying to keep customers interested in their highly profitable bread-and-butter product: gasoline. A more likely scenario is what is emerging in California, where some 38 independent hydrogen fuel stations are located around the state as part of a network created by the non-profit California Fuel Cell Partnership, a consortium of automakers, state and federal agencies, and other parties interested in furthering hydrogen fuel-cell technologies.

The benefits of ditching fossil fuels for hydrogen are many, of course. Burning fossil fuels like coal, natural gas and oil to heat and cool our buildings and run our vehicles takes a heavy toll on the environment, contributing significantly to both local problems such as elevated particulate levels and global ones such as a warming climate. The only by-product of running a hydrogen-powered fuel cell is oxygen and a trickle of water, neither of which will cause any harm to human health or the environment.

But right now, 95 percent of the hydrogen available in the United States is either extracted from fossil fuels or made using electrolytic processes powered by fossil fuels, thus negating any real emissions savings or reduction in fossil-fuel usage. Only if renewable energy sources-solar, wind and others-can be harnessed to provide the energy to process hydrogen fuel can the dream of a truly clean hydrogen fuel be realized.

Stanford University researchers in 2005 assessed the environmental effects of three different hydrogen sources: coal, natural gas, and water electrolysis powered by wind. They concluded that we’d lower greenhouse gas emissions more by driving gasoline/electric hybrid cars than by driving fuel-cell cars run on hydrogen from coal. Hydrogen made using natural gas would fare a little bit better in terms of pollution output, while making it from wind power would be a slam-dunk for the environment.

Geothermal Energy

The heat inside the Earth produces steam and hot water that can be used to power generators and produce electricity, or for other applications such as home heating and power generation for industry. Geothermal energy can be drawn from deep underground reservoirs by drilling or from other geothermal reservoirs closer to the surface.

Ocean

As any board or body surfer will tell you, the ocean’s tidal currents pack considerable wallop. So why wouldn’t it make sense to harness all that formidable ocean power-which is not unlike that of the rivers that drive hydropower dams or the wind that drives wind turbines-to make energy?

The concept is simple, says John Lienhard, a University of Houston mechanical engineering professor: “Every day the moon’s gravitational pull lifts countless tons of water up into, say, the East River or the Bay of Fundy. When that water flows back out to sea, its energy dissipates and, if we don’t use it, it’s simply spent.”

According to Energy Quest, an educational website of the California Energy Commission, the sea can be harnessed for energy in three basic ways: using wave power, using tidal power, and using ocean water temperature variations in a process called “ocean thermal energy conversion”.

• In harnessing wave power, the back-and-forth or up-and-down movement of waves can be captured, for example, to force air in and out of a chamber to drive a piston or spin a turbine that can power a generator. Some systems in operation now power small lighthouses and warning buoys.
• Harnessing tidal energy, on the other hand, involves trapping water at high tide and then capturing its energy as it rushes out and drops in its change to low tide. This is similar to the way water makes hydroelectric dams work. Already some large installations in Canada and France generate enough electricity to power thousands of homes.
• An OTEC system uses temperature differences between deep and surface waters to extract energy from the flow of heat between the two. An experimental station in Hawaii hopes to develop the technology and someday produce large amounts of electricity on par with the cost of conventional power technologies.

Proponents say that ocean energy is preferable to wind because tides are constant and predictable and that water’s natural density requires fewer turbines than are needed to produce the same amount of wind power. Given the difficulty and cost of building tidal arrays at sea and getting the energy back to land, however, ocean technologies are still young and mostly experimental. But as the industry matures, costs will drop and some analysts think the ocean could power nearly two percent of U.S. energy needs.

Tidal energy pioneers are also hard at work on the U.S. Atlantic coast. The New Hampshire Tidal Energy Company is developing tidal power in the Piscataqua River between New Hampshire and Maine.